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Reduction potential

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Redox potential (also known as oxidation / reduction potential, ORP, pe, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{red}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{red}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./e34e7aa544f223caef2a1a0d4cd2fc7b7a7da2fd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.315ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{red}}" loading="lazy">, or <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{h}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{h}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fa200246fd00460ad123dd7140dc00eb537d8cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.894ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}}" loading="lazy">) is a measure of the tendency of a <a href="Chemical_species" title="Chemical species">chemical species</a> to acquire electrons from or lose <a href="Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> to an electrode and thereby be reduced or oxidised respectively. Redox potential is expressed in <a href="Volt" title="Volt">volts</a> (V). Each species has its own intrinsic redox potential; for example, the more positive the reduction potential (reduction potential is more often used due to general formalism in electrochemistry), the greater the species' affinity for electrons and tendency to be reduced.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement_and_interpretation">Measurement and interpretation</h2></div>

In <a href="Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">aqueous solutions</a>, redox potential is a measure of the tendency of the solution to either gain or lose electrons in a reaction. A solution with a higher (more positive) reduction potential than some other molecule will have a tendency to gain electrons from this molecule (i.e. to be reduced by oxidizing this other molecule) and a solution with a lower (more negative) reduction potential will have a tendency to lose electrons to other substances (i.e. to be oxidized by reducing the other substance). Because the <a href="Absolute_electrode_potential" title="Absolute electrode potential">absolute potentials</a> are next to impossible to accurately measure, reduction potentials are defined relative to a reference electrode. Reduction potentials of aqueous solutions are determined by measuring the potential difference between an inert sensing electrode in contact with the solution and a stable reference electrode connected to the solution by a <a href="Salt_bridge" title="Salt bridge">salt bridge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Environmental_Chemistry_(vanLoon)-1">[1]</a>

The sensing electrode acts as a platform for electron transfer to or from the reference <a href="Half_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Half cell">half cell</a>; it is typically made of <a href="Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a>, although <a href="Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and <a href="Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> can be used as well. The reference half cell consists of a redox standard of known potential. The <a href="Standard_hydrogen_electrode" title="Standard hydrogen electrode">standard hydrogen electrode</a> (SHE) is the reference from which all standard redox potentials are determined, and has been assigned an arbitrary half cell potential of 0.0 V. However, it is fragile and impractical for routine laboratory use. Therefore, other more stable reference electrodes such as <a href="Silver_chloride_electrode" title="Silver chloride electrode">silver chloride</a> and <a href="Saturated_calomel_electrode" title="Saturated calomel electrode">saturated calomel</a> (SCE) are commonly used because of their more reliable performance.

Although measurement of the redox potential in aqueous solutions is relatively straightforward, many factors limit its interpretation, such as effects of solution temperature and pH, <a href="Reversible_reaction" title="Reversible reaction">irreversible reactions</a>, slow electrode kinetics, non-equilibrium, presence of multiple redox couples, electrode poisoning, small exchange currents, and inert redox couples. Consequently, practical measurements seldom correlate with calculated values. Nevertheless, reduction potential measurement has proven useful as an analytical tool in monitoring changes in a system rather than determining their absolute value (e.g. process control and <a href="Titration" title="Titration">titrations</a>).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanation">Explanation</h2></div>

Similar to how the concentration of hydrogen ions determines the acidity or <a href="PH" title="PH">pH</a> of an aqueous solution, the tendency of electron transfer between a chemical species and an electrode determines the redox potential of an electrode couple. Like pH, redox potential represents how easily electrons are transferred to or from species in solution. Redox potential characterises the ability under the specific condition of a chemical species to lose or gain electrons instead of the amount of electrons available for oxidation or reduction.

The notion of pe is used with <a href="Pourbaix_diagram" title="Pourbaix diagram">Pourbaix diagrams</a>. pe is a dimensionless number and can easily be related to EH by the following relationship:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle pe={\frac {E_{H}}{V_{T}\lambda }}={\frac {E_{H}}{0.05916}}=16.903\,{\text{×}}\,E_{H}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./a6ddc42238a49dc209db4c79a26ec457b6fb973e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:37.479ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle pe={\frac {E_{H}}{V_{T}\lambda }}={\frac {E_{H}}{0.05916}}=16.903\,{\text{×}}\,E_{H}}" loading="lazy"></dd></dl>

where, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{T}={\frac {RT}{F}}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{T}={\frac {RT}{F}}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./97e557743ceb62ebfbaaa02bca88c925977cbf5a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:10.079ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{T}={\frac {RT}{F}}}" loading="lazy"> is the <a href="Thermal_voltage" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal voltage">thermal voltage</a>, with R, the <a href="Gas_constant" title="Gas constant">gas constant</a> (8.314 J⋅K−1⋅mol−1), T, the <a href="Thermodynamic_temperature" title="Thermodynamic temperature">absolute temperature</a> in <a href="Kelvin" title="Kelvin">Kelvin</a> (298.15 K = 25 °C = 77 °F), F, the <a href="Faraday_constant" title="Faraday constant">Faraday constant</a> (96 485 coulomb/mol of e−), and λ = ln(10) ≈ 2.3026.

In fact, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle pe=-\log[e^{-}]}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle pe=-\log[e^{-}]}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./e26e524de25ff6405613eec07ac3d67bcfdf0dbc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:14.496ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle pe=-\log[e^{-}]}" loading="lazy"> is defined as the negative logarithm of the free electron concentration in solution, and is directly proportional to the redox potential.<a href="#cite_note-Environmental_Chemistry_(vanLoon)-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Sometimes <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle pe}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle pe}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./228e429a2c2663dda3d4f759e17c3e8e1f153d12.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:2.342ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle pe}" loading="lazy"> is used as a unit of reduction potential instead of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{h}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{h}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fa200246fd00460ad123dd7140dc00eb537d8cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.894ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}}" loading="lazy">, for example, in environmental chemistry.<a href="#cite_note-Environmental_Chemistry_(vanLoon)-1">[1]</a> If one normalizes <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle pe}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle pe}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./228e429a2c2663dda3d4f759e17c3e8e1f153d12.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:2.342ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle pe}" loading="lazy"> of hydrogen to zero, one obtains the relation <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle pe=16.9\ E_{h}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle pe=16.9\ E_{h}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./cee539904ab2febf2b8f929283215da7dd188716.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:13.05ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle pe=16.9\ E_{h}}" loading="lazy"> at room temperature. This notion is useful for understanding redox potential, although the transfer of electrons, rather than the absolute concentration of free electrons in thermal equilibrium, is how one usually thinks of redox potential. Theoretically, however, the two approaches are equivalent.

Conversely, one could define a potential corresponding to pH as a potential difference between a solute and pH neutral water, separated by porous membrane (that is permeable to hydrogen ions). Such potential differences actually do occur from differences in acidity on biological membranes. This potential (where pH neutral water is set to 0 V) is analogous with redox potential (where standardized hydrogen solution is set to 0 V), but instead of hydrogen ions, electrons are transferred across in the redox case. Both pH and redox potentials are properties of solutions, not of elements or chemical compounds themselves, and depend on concentrations, temperature etc.

The table below shows a few reduction potentials, which can be changed to oxidation potentials by reversing the sign. <a href="Reducing_agent" title="Reducing agent">Reducers</a> donate electrons to (or "reduce") <a href="Oxidizing_agents" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizing agents">oxidizing agents</a>, which are said to "be reduced by" the reducer. The reducer is stronger when it has a more negative reduction potential and weaker when it has a more positive reduction potential. The more positive the reduction potential the greater the species' affinity for electrons and tendency to be reduced. The following table provides the reduction potentials of the indicated <a href="Reducing_agent" title="Reducing agent">reducing agent</a> at 25 °C. For example, among <a href="Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> (Na) metal, <a href="Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> (Cr) metal, <a href="Cuprous" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuprous">cuprous</a> (Cu+) ion and <a href="Chloride" title="Chloride">chloride</a> (Cl−) ion, it is Na metal that is the strongest reducing agent while Cl− ion is the weakest; said differently, Na+ ion is the weakest oxidizing agent in this list while <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">

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</style>Cl2 molecule is the strongest.

<caption>Reduction potentials of various reactions<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> v

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<th>Reduction Potential (V)

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<td style="text-align:right;">Li+ + e−

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<td>Li

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<td style="text-align:right;">−3.04

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<td style="text-align:right;">Na+ + e−

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<td>Na

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<td style="text-align:right;">−2.71

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<td style="text-align:right;">Mg2+ + 2 e−

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<td>Mg

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<td style="text-align:right;">−2.38

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<td style="text-align:right;">Al3+ + 3 e−

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<td>Al

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<td style="text-align:right;">−1.66

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<td style="text-align:right;">2 H2O (l) + 2 e−

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<td>H2 (g) + 2 OH−

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<td style="text-align:right;">−0.83

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<td style="text-align:right;">Cr3+ + 3 e−

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<td>Cr

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<td style="text-align:right;">−0.74

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<td style="text-align:right;">Fe2+ + 2 e−

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<td>Fe

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<td style="text-align:right;">−0.44

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<td style="text-align:right;">2 H+ + 2 e−

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<td>H2

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<td style="text-align:right;">0.00

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<td style="text-align:right;">Sn4+ + 2 e−

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<td>Sn2+

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<td style="text-align:right;">+0.15

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<td style="text-align:right;">Cu2+ + e−

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<td>Cu+

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<td style="text-align:right;">+0.16

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<td style="text-align:right;">Ag+ + e−

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<td>Ag

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<td style="text-align:right;">+0.80

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<td style="text-align:right;">Br2 + 2 e−

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<td>2 Br−

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<td style="text-align:right;">+1.07

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<td style="text-align:right;">Cl2 + 2 e−

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<td>2 Cl−

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<td style="text-align:right;">+1.36

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<td style="text-align:right;">MnO−4 + 8 H+ + 5 e−

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<td>Mn2+ + 4 H2O

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<td style="text-align:right;">+1.49

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<td style="text-align:right;">F2 + 2 e−

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<td>2 F−

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<td style="text-align:right;">+2.87

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Some elements and compounds can be both reducing or <a href="Oxidizing_agent" title="Oxidizing agent">oxidizing agents</a>. Hydrogen gas is a reducing agent when it reacts with non-metals and an oxidizing agent when it reacts with metals.

Hydrogen (whose reduction potential is 0.0) acts as an oxidizing agent because it accepts an electron donation from the reducing agent <a href="Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> (whose reduction potential is −3.04), which causes Li to be oxidized and Hydrogen to be reduced.

Hydrogen acts as a reducing agent because it donates its electrons to fluorine, which allows fluorine to be reduced.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Standard_reduction_potential">Standard reduction potential</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Standard_electrode_potential" title="Standard electrode potential">Standard electrode potential</a>, <a href="Standard_hydrogen_electrode" title="Standard hydrogen electrode">Standard hydrogen electrode</a>, <a href="Standard_electrode_potential_(data_page)" title="Standard electrode potential (data page)">Standard electrode potential (data page)</a>, and <a href="Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry" title="Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry">Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry</a></div>

The <a href="Standard_electrode_potential" title="Standard electrode potential">standard reduction potential</a> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{red}^{\ominus }}">

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</math><img src="./2eca8e3be4f894ae5145e50114c550b2b2df77fa.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.315ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{red}^{\ominus }}" loading="lazy"> is measured under <a href="Standard_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard conditions">standard conditions</a>: T = 298.15 K (25 <a href="Celsius" title="Celsius">°C</a>, or 77 <a href="Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">°F</a>), a unity <a href="Activity_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Activity (chemistry)">activity</a> (a = 1) for each <a href="Ion" title="Ion">ion</a> participating into the <a href="Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">reaction</a>, a <a href="Partial_pressure" title="Partial pressure">partial pressure</a> of 1 atm (<a href="Bar_(unit)" title="Bar (unit)">1.013 bar</a>) for each <a href="Gas" title="Gas">gas</a> taking part into the reaction, and <a href="Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> in their pure state. The standard reduction potential <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{red}^{\ominus }}">

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</math><img src="./2eca8e3be4f894ae5145e50114c550b2b2df77fa.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.315ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{red}^{\ominus }}" loading="lazy"> is defined relative to the <a href="Standard_hydrogen_electrode" title="Standard hydrogen electrode">standard hydrogen electrode</a> (SHE) used as reference electrode, which is arbitrarily given a potential of 0.00 V. However, because these can also be referred to as "redox potentials", the terms "reduction potentials" and "oxidation potentials" are preferred by the IUPAC. The two may be explicitly distinguished by the symbols <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{red}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{ox}}</annotation>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Half_cells">Half cells</h2></div>

The relative <a href="Reactivity_(chemistry)" title="Reactivity (chemistry)">reactivities</a> of different <a href="Half_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Half cell">half cells</a> can be compared to predict the direction of electron flow. A higher <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{red}^{\ominus }}">

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Any system or environment that accepts electrons from a normal hydrogen electrode is a half cell that is defined as having a positive redox potential; any system donating electrons to the hydrogen electrode is defined as having a negative redox potential. <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{h}}">

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</math><img src="./fa200246fd00460ad123dd7140dc00eb537d8cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.894ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}}" loading="lazy"> is usually expressed in <a href="Volt" title="Volt">volts</a> (V) or millivolts (<a href="Millivolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Millivolt">mV</a>). A high positive <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{h}}">

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</math><img src="./fa200246fd00460ad123dd7140dc00eb537d8cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.894ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}}" loading="lazy"> indicates a strong reducing environment, such as free metals.

Sometimes when <a href="Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> is carried out in an <a href="Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">aqueous solution</a>, water, rather than the solute, is oxidized or reduced. For example, if an aqueous solution of <a href="Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">NaCl</a> is electrolyzed, water may be reduced at the <a href="Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a> to produce <a href="Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H2(g)</a> and <a href="Hydroxide" title="Hydroxide">OH−</a> ions, instead of Na+ being reduced to <a href="Sodium" title="Sodium">Na</a>(s), as occurs in the absence of water. It is the reduction potential of each species present that will determine which species will be oxidized or reduced.

Absolute reduction potentials can be determined if one knows the actual potential between electrode and electrolyte for any one reaction. Surface polarization interferes with measurements, but various sources give an estimated potential for the standard hydrogen electrode of 4.4 V to 4.6 V (the electrolyte being positive).

Half-cell equations can be combined if the one corresponding to oxidation is reversed so that each electron given by the reductant is accepted by the oxidant. In this way, the global combined equation no longer contains electrons.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nernst_equation">Nernst equation</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Nernst_equation" title="Nernst equation">Nernst equation</a></div>

The <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{h}}">

<msub>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{h}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fa200246fd00460ad123dd7140dc00eb537d8cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.894ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}}" loading="lazy"> and <a href="PH" title="PH">pH</a> of a solution are related by the <a href="Nernst_equation" title="Nernst equation">Nernst equation</a> as commonly represented by a <a href="Pourbaix_diagram" title="Pourbaix diagram">Pourbaix diagram</a> (<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{h}}">

<msub>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{h}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fa200246fd00460ad123dd7140dc00eb537d8cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.894ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}}" loading="lazy"> – <a href="PH" title="PH">pH</a> plot). For a <a href="Half_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Half cell">half cell</a> equation, conventionally written as a reduction reaction (i.e., electrons accepted by an oxidant on the left side):

<msup>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a\,A+b\,B+h\,{\ce {H+}}+z\,e^{-}\quad {\ce {<=>}}\quad c\,C+d\,D}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./21d6729acf60e5eaffa170e8d2ef03fc0e334405.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:41.61ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a\,A+b\,B+h\,{\ce {H+}}+z\,e^{-}\quad {\ce {<=>}}\quad c\,C+d\,D}" loading="lazy"></dd></dl>

The half-cell <a href="Standard_reduction_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard reduction potential">standard reduction potential</a> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./070e3b1c9c626ec8e40dace4818b59bb7a785d51.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.236ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }}" loading="lazy"> is given by

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<mtext>volts</mtext>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }({\text{volts}})=-{\frac {\Delta G^{\ominus }}{zF}}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./14ba70494b1d78ecd79012dc2f0bc04d7a6fe9ee.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:21.919ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }({\text{volts}})=-{\frac {\Delta G^{\ominus }}{zF}}}" loading="lazy"></dd></dl>

where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\ominus }}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\ominus }}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./783df781bd2cde06d7956470e952c27226a4e203.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.273ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\ominus }}" loading="lazy"> is the standard <a href="Gibbs_free_energy" title="Gibbs free energy">Gibbs free energy</a> change, z is the number of electrons involved, and F is <a href="Faraday's_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Faraday's constant">Faraday's constant</a>. The <a href="Nernst_equation" title="Nernst equation">Nernst equation</a> relates pH and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{h}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{h}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fa200246fd00460ad123dd7140dc00eb537d8cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.894ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}}" loading="lazy">:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{h}=E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }-{\frac {0.05916}{z}}\log \left({\frac {\{C\}^{c}\{D\}^{d}}{\{A\}^{a}\{B\}^{b}}}\right)-{\frac {0.05916\,h}{z}}{\text{pH}}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./ca2f6762eb03b527dfc0cbeec08c12e48fe168a0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:63.174ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}=E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }-{\frac {0.05916}{z}}\log \left({\frac {\{C\}^{c}\{D\}^{d}}{\{A\}^{a}\{B\}^{b}}}\right)-{\frac {0.05916\,h}{z}}{\text{pH}}}" loading="lazy">  </dd></dl>

where curly brackets indicate <a href="Activity_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Activity (chemistry)">activities</a>, and exponents are shown in the conventional manner. This equation is the equation of a straight line for <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{h}}">

<msub>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{h}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fa200246fd00460ad123dd7140dc00eb537d8cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.894ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}}" loading="lazy"> as a function of pH with a slope of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -0.05916\,\left({\frac {h}{z}}\right)}">

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<mfrac>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -0.05916\,\left({\frac {h}{z}}\right)}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./637ab0d8f708dc824aa279b991f19308d315e1c1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:15.8ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -0.05916\,\left({\frac {h}{z}}\right)}" loading="lazy"> volt (pH has no units).

This equation predicts lower <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{h}}">

<msub>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{h}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fa200246fd00460ad123dd7140dc00eb537d8cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.894ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}}" loading="lazy"> at higher pH values. This is observed for the reduction of O2 into H2O, or OH−, and for reduction of H+ into H2:

In most (if not all) of the reduction reactions involving oxyanions with a central redox-active atom, oxide anions (O2− ) being in excess are freed-up when the central atom is reduced. The acid-base neutralization of each oxide ion consumes 2 <a href="Hydron" title="Hydron">H+</a> or one <a href="Water" title="Water">H2O</a> molecule as follows:

This is why protons are always engaged as reagent on the left side of the reduction reactions as can be generally observed in the table of <a href="Standard_reduction_potential_(data_page)" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard reduction potential (data page)">standard reduction potential (data page)</a>.

If, in very rare instances of reduction reactions, the H+ were the products formed by a reduction reaction and thus appearing on the right side of the equation, the slope of the line would be inverse and thus positive (higher <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{h}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{h}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fa200246fd00460ad123dd7140dc00eb537d8cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.894ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}}" loading="lazy"> at higher pH).

An example of that would be the reductive dissolution of <a href="Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a> (Fe3O4 ≈ Fe2O3·FeO with 2 Fe3+ and 1 Fe2+ ) to form 3 HFeO− 2 (aq) (in which dissolved iron, Fe(II), is divalent and much more soluble than Fe(III)), while releasing one <a href="Hydron" title="Hydron">H+</a>:<a href="#cite_note-garrels-6">[4]</a>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons }</annotation>

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</math><img src="./1c37b981df851b9e54e489e017b1481e37d418f3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.324ex; height:1.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons }" loading="lazy"> 3 HFeO− 2 + <a href="Hydron" title="Hydron">H+</a> </dd></dl>

where:

Note that the slope 0.0296 of the line is −1/2 of the −0.05916 value above, since h/z = −1/2. Note also that the value −0.0885 corresponds to −0.05916 × 3/2.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry" title="Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry">Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry</a></div>

Many <a href="Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymatic</a> reactions are oxidation–reduction reactions, in which one compound is oxidized and another compound is reduced. The ability of an organism to carry out oxidation–reduction reactions depends on the oxidation–reduction state of the environment, or its reduction potential (<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{h}}">

<msub>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{h}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fa200246fd00460ad123dd7140dc00eb537d8cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.894ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}}" loading="lazy">).

Strictly <a href="Aerobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerobe">aerobic microorganisms</a> are generally active at positive <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{h}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{h}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fa200246fd00460ad123dd7140dc00eb537d8cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.894ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}}" loading="lazy"> values, whereas strict <a href="Anaerobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaerobe">anaerobes</a> are generally active at negative <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{h}}">

<msub>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{h}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fa200246fd00460ad123dd7140dc00eb537d8cc0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.894ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{h}}" loading="lazy"> values. Redox affects the solubility of <a href="Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a>, especially metal ions.<a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a>

There are organisms that can adjust their metabolism to their environment, such as facultative anaerobes. Facultative anaerobes can be active at positive Eh values, and at negative Eh values in the presence of oxygen-bearing inorganic compounds, such as nitrates and sulfates.

In biochemistry, apparent standard reduction potentials, or formal potentials, (<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{red}^{\ominus '}}">

</mrow>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{red}^{\ominus '}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./dd742e346d47830add03b4e7501b71f26f3e5d81.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.315ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{red}^{\ominus '}}" loading="lazy">, noted with a prime ' mark in superscript) calculated at pH 7 closer to the pH of biological and intra-cellular fluids are used to more easily assess if a given biochemical redox reaction is possible. They must not be confused with the common standard reduction potentials (<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{red}^{\ominus }}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{red}^{\ominus }}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./2eca8e3be4f894ae5145e50114c550b2b2df77fa.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.315ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{red}^{\ominus }}" loading="lazy">) determined under <a href="Standard_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard conditions">standard conditions</a> (T = 298.15 K = 25 °C = 77 °F; Pgas = 1 atm = 1.013 bar) with the concentration of each dissolved species being taken as 1 M, and thus [ <a href="Hydron" title="Hydron">H+</a>] = 1 M and <a href="PH" title="PH">pH</a> = 0.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_chemistry">Environmental chemistry</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Pourbaix_diagram" title="Pourbaix diagram">Pourbaix diagram</a></div>

In the field of environmental chemistry, the reduction potential is used to determine if oxidizing or reducing conditions are prevalent in water or soil, and to <a href="Pourbaix_diagram" title="Pourbaix diagram">predict the states of different chemical species in the water</a>, such as dissolved metals. pe values in water range from −12 to 25; the levels where the water itself becomes reduced or oxidized, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Environmental_Chemistry_(vanLoon)-1">[1]</a>

The reduction potentials in natural systems often lie comparatively near one of the boundaries of the stability region of water. Aerated surface water, rivers, lakes, oceans, rainwater and <a href="Acid_mine_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid mine water">acid mine water</a>, usually have oxidizing conditions (positive potentials). In places with limitations in air supply, such as submerged soils, swamps and marine sediments, reducing conditions (negative potentials) are the norm. Intermediate values are rare and usually a temporary condition found in systems moving to higher or lower pe values.<a href="#cite_note-Environmental_Chemistry_(vanLoon)-1">[1]</a>

In environmental situations, it is common to have complex non-equilibrium conditions between a large number of species, meaning that it is often not possible to make accurate and precise measurements of the reduction potential. However, it is usually possible to obtain an approximate value and define the conditions as being in the oxidizing or reducing regime.<a href="#cite_note-Environmental_Chemistry_(vanLoon)-1">[1]</a>

In the soil there are two main redox constituents: 1) anorganic redox systems (mainly ox/red compounds of Fe and Mn) and measurement in water extracts; 2) natural soil samples with all microbial and root components and measurement by direct method.<a href="#cite_note-Hudson_2016-8">[6]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_quality">Water quality</h2></div>

The oxido-reduction potential (ORP) can be used for the systems monitoring water quality with the advantage of a single-value measure for the disinfection potential, showing the effective activity of the disinfectant rather than the applied dose.<a href="#cite_note-suslow-9">[7]</a> For example, <a href="E._coli" class="mw-redirect" title="E. coli">E. coli</a>, <a href="Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a>, <a href="Listeria" title="Listeria">Listeria</a> and other pathogens have survival times of less than 30 seconds when the ORP is above 665 mV, compared to more than 300 seconds when ORP is below 485 mV.<a href="#cite_note-suslow-9">[7]</a>

A study was conducted comparing traditional <a href="Parts-per_notation" title="Parts-per notation">parts per million</a> (ppm) <a href="Water_chlorination" title="Water chlorination">chlorination</a> reading and ORP in <a href="Hennepin_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Hennepin County">Hennepin County</a>, <a href="Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>. The results of this study presents arguments in favor of the inclusion of ORP above 650 mV in the local health regulation codes.<a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geochemistry_and_mineralogy">Geochemistry and mineralogy</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Pourbaix_diagram" title="Pourbaix diagram">Pourbaix diagram</a></div>

Eh–pH (Pourbaix) diagrams are commonly used in mining and geology for assessment of the stability fields of minerals and <a href="Solubility" title="Solubility">dissolved</a> species. Under the conditions where a mineral <a href="Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">(solid) phase</a> is predicted to be the most stable form of an element, these diagrams show that mineral. As the predicted results are all from <a href="Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamic</a> (at <a href="Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">equilibrium state</a>) evaluations, these diagrams should be used with caution. Although the formation of a mineral or its <a href="Dissolution_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution (chemistry)">dissolution</a> may be predicted to occur under a set of conditions, the process may practically be negligible because its rate is too slow. Consequently, <a href="Kinetics_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinetics (chemistry)">kinetic</a> evaluations at the same time are necessary. Nevertheless, the equilibrium conditions can be used to evaluate the direction of spontaneous changes and the magnitude of the driving force behind them.

<ul><li><a href="Electrochemical_potential" title="Electrochemical potential">Electrochemical potential</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrolytic_cell" title="Electrolytic cell">Electrolytic cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Electromotive_force" title="Electromotive force">Electromotive force</a></li>

<li><a href="Fermi_level" title="Fermi level">Fermi level</a></li>

<li><a href="Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">Galvanic cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Oxygen_radical_absorbance_capacity" title="Oxygen radical absorbance capacity">Oxygen radical absorbance capacity</a></li>

<li><a href="Pourbaix_diagram" title="Pourbaix diagram">Pourbaix diagram</a></li>

<li><a href="Redox" title="Redox">Redox</a></li>

<li><a href="Redox_gradient" title="Redox gradient">Redox gradient</a></li>

<li><a href="Solvated_electron" title="Solvated electron">Solvated electron</a></li>

<li><a href="Standard_electrode_potential" title="Standard electrode potential">Standard electrode potential</a></li>

<li><a href="Table_of_standard_electrode_potentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Table of standard electrode potentials">Table of standard electrode potentials</a></li>

<li><a href="Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry" title="Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry">Standard apparent reduction potentials in biochemistry at pH 7</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFvanLoonDuffy,_Stephen2011" class="citation book cs1">vanLoon, Gary; Duffy, Stephen (2011). Environmental Chemistry -(*Gary Wallace) a global perspective (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 235–248. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-922886-7</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Stumm, W. and Morgan, J. J. (1981). Aquatic Chemistry, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York.

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<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/electrode.html">"Standard Electrode Potentials"</a>. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 29 March 2018.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-garrels-6"><a href="#cite_ref-garrels_6-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGarrels,_R._M.Christ,_C._L.1990" class="citation book cs1">Garrels, R. M.; Christ, C. L. (1990). Minerals, Solutions, and Equilibria. London: <a href="Jones_and_Bartlett" class="mw-redirect" title="Jones and Bartlett">Jones and Bartlett</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFChuanLiu1996" class="citation journal cs1">Chuan, M.; Liu, G. Shu. J. (1996). "Solubility of heavy metals in a contaminated soil: Effects of redox potential and pH". Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. 90 (3–4): 543–556. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996WASP...90..543C">1996WASP...90..543C</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00282668">10.1007/BF00282668</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:93256604">93256604</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Hudson_2016-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Hudson_2016_8-0">^</a> Husson O. et al. (2016). Practical improvements in soil redox potential (Eh) measurement for characterisation of soil properties. Application for comparison of conventional and conservation agriculture cropping systems. Analytica Chimica Acta 906, 98–109.

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<li id="cite_note-suslow-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-suslow_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-suslow_9-1">b</a> Trevor V. Suslow, 2004. Oxidation-Reduction Potential for Water Disinfection Monitoring, Control, and Documentation, University of California Davis, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8149.pdf">http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8149.pdf</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBastianBrondum2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bastian, Tiana; Brondum, Jack (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2646482">"Do Traditional Measures of Water Quality in Swimming Pools and Spas Correspond with Beneficial Oxidation Reduction Potential?"</a>. Public Health Rep. 124 (2): 255–61. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F003335490912400213">10.1177/003335490912400213</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2646482">2646482</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19320367">19320367</a>.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wolkersdorfer.info/en/redoxprobes.html">Online Calculator Redoxpotential ("Redox Compensation")</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="Half_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Half reaction">Half reactions</a>: 2 Li (s) → 2 Li+ (s) + 2 e− combined along with: H2 (g) → 2 H+ (g) + 2 e−

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a href="Half_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Half reaction">Half reactions</a>: H2 (g) → 2 H+ (g) + 2 e− combined along with: F2 (g) + 2 e− → 2 F− (g)

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_notes">Additional notes</h2></div>

<cite id="CITEREFOnishiKondo_WUchiyama_Y1960" class="citation journal cs1">Onishi, j; Kondo W; Uchiyama Y (1960). "Preliminary report on the oxidation-reduction potential obtained on surfaces of gingiva and tongue and in interdental space". Bull Tokyo Med Dent Univ (7): 161.</cite>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links_2">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biology-pages.info/R/RedoxPotentials.html">Redox potential exercises in biological systems</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://equationbalancer.com/oxidizing-and-reducing-agents">Oxidizing and Reducing Agents in Redox Reactions</a></li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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